Anatomy
MBBS Anatomy question bank: general anatomy and osteology, regional gross anatomy (upper limb, lower limb, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, head and neck), neuroanatomy, histology and embryology.
12chapters144questions84High-Yield
Definition
Anatomical terminology is the standard language to describe the body, based on the anatomical position and reference planes and terms.
Anatomical Position
- Standing erect, facing forward
- Arms by the side, palms facing forward
- Feet together, toes pointing forward
Planes
- Sagittal — divides into left & right (median = midline)
- Coronal (frontal) — front & back
- Transverse (horizontal) — upper & lower
Terms of Relation
- Superior/inferior; anterior/posterior
- Medial/lateral; proximal/distal
- Superficial/deep
Terms of Movement
- Flexion/extension; abduction/adduction
- Rotation, circumduction
- Pronation/supination
All description starts from the anatomical position, using set planes and terms. Plane Divides into Sagittal Left & right Coronal Front & back Transverse Upper & lower Applied
- Standard for clinical findings, imaging, surgery
- Avoids ambiguity in description
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Anatomical position = erect, palms forward, feet together.
- Planes: sagittal (L/R), coronal (front/back), transverse (upper/lower).
- Terms of relation and movement standardise description.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Bone is a rigid, specialised connective tissue forming the skeleton; osteology is its study. Bones are classified by shape and structure.
Classification by Shape
- Long — limbs (femur, humerus)
- Short — carpals, tarsals
- Flat — skull, scapula, ribs
- Irregular — vertebrae
- Sesamoid — patella
Structure of a Long Bone
- Diaphysis — shaft (compact bone)
- Epiphysis — ends (spongy bone)
- Metaphysis — growth zone
- Medullary cavity — marrow
- Covered by periosteum; lined by endosteum
Types of Bone Tissue
- Compact (cortical) — dense, Haversian systems
- Spongy (cancellous) — trabeculae, marrow
Bone shape reflects its mechanical role. Type Example Long Femur Short Carpals Flat Scapula Irregular Vertebra Sesamoid Patella Applied
- Fractures; bone marrow (haematopoiesis)
- Bone as a calcium store
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Bones by shape: long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid.
- Long bone: diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, medullary cavity.
- Compact (Haversian) vs spongy (trabecular) bone.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
A joint (articulation) is where two or more bones meet; joints are classified by structure and function.
Structural Classification
- Fibrous — joined by fibrous tissue (sutures)
- Cartilaginous — joined by cartilage (symphysis)
- Synovial — joint cavity, freely movable
Functional Classification
- Synarthrosis — immovable
- Amphiarthrosis — slightly movable
- Diarthrosis — freely movable (synovial)
Synovial Joint Features
- Articular cartilage, capsule, synovial fluid
- Freely movable
Structure determines how freely a joint moves. Type Movement Example Fibrous None Skull sutures Cartilaginous Slight Pubic symphysis Synovial Free Knee, shoulder Applied
- Arthritis, dislocation
- Synovial joints are commonly injured
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Structural: fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.
- Functional: synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis.
- Synovial = freely movable (cavity + synovial fluid).
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Muscle is a contractile tissue producing movement; there are three types — skeletal, cardiac and smooth.
Types
- Skeletal — voluntary, striated, attached to bones
- Cardiac — involuntary, striated, heart
- Smooth — involuntary, non-striated, viscera
Parts of a Skeletal Muscle
- Origin (fixed end) & insertion (moving end)
- Belly (fleshy contractile part)
- Tendon / aponeurosis (attachment)
Functional Roles
- Agonist (prime mover), antagonist
- Synergist, fixator
Skeletal muscle moves bones; cardiac and smooth are involuntary. Type Control Striations Skeletal Voluntary Yes Cardiac Involuntary Yes Smooth Involuntary No Applied
- Muscle attachment sites (clinical landmarks)
- Muscles named by shape, action or attachment
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Three types: skeletal (voluntary), cardiac, smooth (involuntary).
- Skeletal muscle: origin, insertion, belly, tendon.
- Roles: agonist, antagonist, synergist, fixator.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Cartilage, connective tissue and skin are the supporting and covering tissues of the body.
Cartilage (3 types)
- Hyaline — articular, respiratory, costal
- Elastic — external ear, epiglottis
- Fibrocartilage — intervertebral disc, symphysis
Connective Tissue
- Cells + fibres + ground substance
- Loose (areolar), dense (tendon), special (bone, blood)
- Supports, connects and protects
Skin (Layers)
- Epidermis — stratified squamous epithelium
- Dermis — connective tissue, vessels, nerves
- Functions: protection, sensation, temperature
Cartilage, connective tissue and skin support, connect and cover the body. Cartilage Location Hyaline Joints, airway Elastic Ear, epiglottis Fibrocartilage Disc, symphysis Applied
- Osteoarthritis — hyaline cartilage loss
- Skin — barrier; burns
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.
- Connective tissue: cells + fibres + ground substance.
- Skin: epidermis + dermis (protection, sensation, thermoregulation).
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
The anatomical position is the standard reference posture; planes are imaginary flat surfaces used to describe the body.
Anatomical Position
- Erect, facing forward
- Arms by the side, palms forward
- Feet together, toes forward
Planes
- Sagittal — left & right
- Coronal — front & back
- Transverse — upper & lower
All three planes are defined from the standard anatomical position. Plane Divides into Sagittal Left / right Coronal Front / back Transverse Upper / lower Applied
- Standard for imaging (CT/MRI) and surgery
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Anatomical position = erect, palms forward.
- Sagittal (L/R), coronal (front/back), transverse (upper/lower).
- Basis for imaging and description.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Synovial joints are freely movable joints with a joint cavity, classified by the shape of articular surfaces and axes of movement.
Types
- Hinge — uniaxial (elbow)
- Pivot — rotation (atlanto-axial)
- Ball & socket — multiaxial (shoulder, hip)
- Condyloid — biaxial (wrist)
- Saddle — thumb
- Plane — gliding (intercarpal)
Grouped by how many axes of movement they allow. Type Movement Example Hinge Flexion/extension Elbow Pivot Rotation Atlanto-axial Ball & socket All directions Shoulder Saddle Biaxial Thumb Applied
- Shoulder — most mobile, easily dislocated
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Synovial joints: hinge, pivot, ball & socket, condyloid, saddle, plane.
- Uniaxial → multiaxial by shape.
- Ball & socket = most mobile.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Cartilage is an avascular supporting connective tissue; there are three types by fibre content.
Types
- Hyaline — commonest; articular surfaces, respiratory tract, costal
- Elastic — elastic fibres; external ear, epiglottis
- Fibrocartilage — strong; intervertebral discs, symphysis, menisci
Fibre content sets each cartilage’s strength and location. Type Fibres Location Hyaline Collagen II Joints, airway Elastic Elastic Ear, epiglottis Fibrocartilage Collagen I Disc, symphysis Applied
- Avascular → heals poorly
- Osteoarthritis — hyaline cartilage loss
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Hyaline (joints/airway), elastic (ear), fibrocartilage (disc).
- All avascular → poor healing.
- Hyaline is the commonest.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Ossification (osteogenesis) is bone formation; it occurs by two methods — intramembranous and endochondral.
Intramembranous
- Bone forms directly in mesenchyme (membrane)
- Flat bones — skull, clavicle
- No cartilage model
Endochondral
- Bone replaces a cartilage model
- Long bones
- Primary (shaft) + secondary (ends) centres
Flat bones ossify in membrane; long bones ossify by replacing cartilage. Type Model Bones Intramembranous Membrane Skull, clavicle Endochondral Cartilage Long bones Applied
- Epiphyseal plate — growth; closes after puberty
- Fracture healing
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Two methods: intramembranous (membrane) & endochondral (cartilage).
- Flat bones = intramembranous; long bones = endochondral.
- Growth at the epiphyseal plate.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
There are three types of muscle tissue — skeletal, cardiac and smooth — differing in structure and control.
Skeletal
- Voluntary, striated, multinucleated
- Attached to bones
Cardiac
- Involuntary, striated, branched
- Intercalated discs; found in the heart
Smooth
- Involuntary, non-striated, spindle-shaped
- Walls of viscera and vessels
Only skeletal muscle is under voluntary control. Type Control Striations Site Skeletal Voluntary Yes Bones Cardiac Involuntary Yes Heart Smooth Involuntary No Viscera Applied
- Only skeletal muscle is voluntary
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (branched, discs), smooth (non-striated).
- Cardiac & smooth are involuntary.
- Skeletal muscle moves bones.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
Deep fascia is a dense, organised layer of connective tissue that invests muscles and structures beneath the superficial fascia.
Features
- Dense, membranous, tough
- Contains no fat (unlike superficial fascia)
- Forms intermuscular septa, retinacula, sheaths
Functions
- Holds muscles together
- Forms fascial compartments
- Retinacula hold tendons in place
- Aids venous return (muscle pump)
Deep fascia organises muscles into compartments and holds tendons in place. Structure Role Septa Compartments Retinacula Hold tendons Sheaths Enclose vessels Applied
- Compartment syndrome
- Fascial planes guide the spread of infection
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Deep fascia = dense, fat-free connective tissue investing muscle.
- Forms septa, compartments, retinacula, sheaths.
- Clinical: compartment syndrome.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.Definition
The skin is the largest organ, with two main layers — epidermis and dermis — resting on subcutaneous tissue.
Epidermis
- Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum
- Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium
- Avascular
Dermis
- Connective tissue
- Blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair follicles
Functions
- Protection (barrier)
- Sensation and temperature regulation
- Vitamin D synthesis
Skin’s layered structure gives it protective and sensory functions. Layer Feature Epidermis Stratified squamous, avascular Dermis Vessels, nerves, glands Applied
- Burns classified by depth
- Skin barrier and infection
🔑KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER- Skin = epidermis (5 layers, avascular) + dermis (vessels, nerves).
- Functions: protection, sensation, thermoregulation, vitamin D.
- Burns graded by depth.
📚SOURCES: BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy; Gray’s Anatomy; Snell’s Clinical Anatomy; Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy.